The Circular Economy a Review of Definitions Processes and Impacts

Implementation of technical standards based on the consensus of different parties

Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments.^[1] Standardization can help maximize compatibility, interoperability, safety, repeatability, or quality. Information technology tin can also facilitate a normalization of formerly custom processes. In social sciences, including economic science,^[2] the thought of standardization is shut to the solution for a coordination trouble, a situation in which all parties can realize mutual gains, just only by making mutually consistent decisions. Standardization is creating emotional balance, conventional particular, a universal familiarity and natural definition to a concept based on concrete or emotional comfort and credence by changing societal behaviors and developments.

History [edit]

Early on examples [edit]

Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization.^[iii] The centralized weight and measure system served the commercial involvement of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.^[4] Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories.^[4] Technical standardisation enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for structure.^[v] Compatible units of length were used in the planning of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Dolavira, Harappa, and Mohenjo-daro.^[3] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Primal Asia, where they were further modified.^{[half dozen]} Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilization:

A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Chanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically pregnant differences betwixt weights that were excavated from five different layers, each measuring well-nigh i.5 m in depth. This was evidence that potent command existed for at to the lowest degree a 500-year catamenia. The 13.7-chiliad weight seems to exist one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the binary and decimal systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of chert.^[3]

18th century attempts [edit]

Henry Maudslay's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800.

The implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly of import with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision motorcar tools and interchangeable parts.

Henry Maudslay adult the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800. This allowed for the standardization of screw thread sizes for the first time and paved the way for the practical application of interchangeability (an idea that was already taking hold) to basics and bolts.^[7]

Before this, spiral threads were usually made by chipping and filing (that is, with skilled freehand employ of chisels and files). Nuts were rare; metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metallic bolts passing through woods framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually attached in not-threaded ways (such every bit clinching or upsetting against a washer). Maudslay standardized the screw threads used in his workshop and produced sets of taps and dies that would make nuts and bolts consistently to those standards, so that any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same size. This was a major advance in workshop technology.^[8]

National standard [edit]

Maudslay'due south work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization; some companies' in-house standards spread a chip within their industries.

Graphic representation of formulae for the pitches of threads of spiral bolts

Joseph Whitworth's screw thread measurements were adopted equally the first (unofficial) national standard by companies effectually the country in 1841. It came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries.^{[9] [10]}

This new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a thread depth of 0.640327p and a radius of 0.137329p, where p is the pitch. The thread pitch increased with diameter in steps specified on a chart. An example of the use of the Whitworth thread is the Royal Navy's Crimean War gunboats. These were the start instance of "mass-production" techniques being applied to marine technology.^[7]

With the adoption of BSW past British railway lines, many of which had previously used their own standard both for threads and for bolt head and nut profiles, and improving manufacturing techniques, it came to dominate British manufacturing.

American Unified Coarse was originally based on almost the aforementioned imperial fractions. The Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests (Whitworth crests are rounded). Thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the thread pitch for the ane⁄2  in. (inch) bolt is 12 threads per inch (tpi) in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC.

National standards torso [edit]

By the end of the 19th century, differences in standards between companies, was making merchandise increasingly hard and strained. For instance, an iron and steel dealer recorded his displeasure in The Times: "Architects and engineers generally specify such unnecessarily diverse types of sectional fabric or given work that anything similar economic and continuous manufacture becomes impossible. In this country no ii professional person men are agreed upon the size and weight of a girder to employ for given work."

The Technology Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the world'due south first national standards torso.^{[11] [12]} It subsequently extended its standardization work and became the British Engineering Standards Association in 1918, adopting the name British Standards Institution in 1931 afterwards receiving its Royal Lease in 1929. The national standards were adopted universally throughout the country, and enabled the markets to human action more rationally and efficiently, with an increased level of cooperation.

After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries. The Deutsches Institut für Normung was prepare up in Germany in 1917, followed by its counterparts, the American National Standard Institute and the French Commission Permanente de Standardisation, both in 1918.^[vii]

Regional standards organization [edit]

At a regional level (e.g. Europa, the Americas, Africa, etc) or at subregional level (eastward.chiliad. Mercosur, Andean Community, South Eastern asia, South East Africa, etc), several Regional Standardization Organizations exist (see also Standards Organization).

The three regional standards organizations in Europe - or European Standardization Organizations (ESOs) recognised past the EU Regulation on Standardization [Regulation (Eu) 1025/2012] are CEN, CENELEC and ETSI. CEN develops standards for numerous kinds of products, materials, services and processes. Some sectors covered by CEN include ship equipment and services, chemicals, construction, consumer products, defence and security, energy, food and feed, wellness and safety, healthcare, digital sector, machinery or services.^[13] The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) is the European Standardization organisation developing standards in the electrotechnical surface area and corresponding to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Europe.^[14]

International standards [edit]

The showtime modern International Organization (Intergovernmental System) the International Telegraph Union (at present International Telecommunications Union) was created in 1865^[15] to prepare international standards in club to connect national telegraph networks, every bit a merger of two predecessor organizations (Bern and Paris treaties) that had similar objectives, only in more limited territories.^{[16] [17]} With the advent of radiocommunication soon after the creation, the work of the ITU quickly expanded from the standardization of Telegraph communications, to developing standards for telecommunication in full general.

International Standards Associations [edit]

By the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. Lord Kelvin was an of import figure in this process, introducing accurate methods and apparatus for measuring electricity. In 1857, he introduced a series of effective instruments, including the quadrant electrometer, which cover the unabridged field of electrostatic measurement. He invented the current balance, also known as the Kelvin balance or Ampere rest (SiC), for the precise specification of the ampere, the standard unit of electrical current.^[eighteen]

R. East. B. Crompton became concerned by the big range of different standards and systems used by electrical technology companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current and even the symbols used on circuit diagrams. Adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electric systems simply because they had been fitted out by dissimilar companies. Crompton could run across the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for an international standard for electrical applied science.^[xix]

In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the International Electric Congress, held in connection with Louisiana Buy Exposition in Saint Louis as function of a delegation past the Institute of Electric Engineers. He presented a newspaper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the germination of a commission to oversee the process.^[20] By 1906 his work was consummate and he drew up a permanent constitution for the International Electrotechnical Committee.^[21] The body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honor of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected equally the torso's outset President.^[22]

Memorial plaque of founding ISA in Prague.

The International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA) was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to raise international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during Globe War II.

Afterward the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed Un Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards trunk. In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in London and agreed to join forces to create the new International System for Standardization (ISO); the new arrangement officially began operations in February 1947.^[23]

In general, each land or economic system has a single recognized National Standards Body (NSB). Examples include ABNT, AENOR (now chosen UNE, Spanish Association for Standardization), AFNOR, ANSI, BSI, DGN, DIN, IRAM, JISC, KATS, SABS, SAC, SCC, SIS. An NSB is probable the sole member from that economy in ISO.

NSBs may be either public or private sector organizations, or combinations of the two. For example, the 3 NSBs of Canada, Mexico and the Usa are respectively the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), the Full general Bureau of Standards ( Dirección General de Normas , DGN), and the American National Standards Plant (ANSI). SCC is a Canadian Crown Corporation, DGN is a governmental agency within the Mexican Ministry building of Economic system, and ANSI and AENOR are a 501(c)(three) non-profit organization with members from both the private and public sectors. The determinants of whether an NSB for a detail economy is a public or private sector torso may include the historical and traditional roles that the private sector fills in public affairs in that economic system or the development stage of that economic system.

Usage [edit]

Standards tin be:

• de facto standards which means they are followed by informal convention or dominant usage.
• de jure standards which are part of legally binding contracts, laws or regulations.
• Voluntary standards which are published and available for people to consider for use.

The existence of a published standard does not necessarily imply that it is useful or correct. Just because an item is stamped with a standard number does non, by itself, indicate that the item is fit for any particular utilise. The people who apply the item or service (engineers, trade unions, etc.) or specify it (building codes, government, industry, etc.) accept the responsibleness to consider the available standards, specify the right one, enforce compliance, and use the item correctly: validation and verification.

To avoid the proliferation of industry standards, besides referred to equally private standards, regulators in the United States are instructed past their authorities offices to adopt "voluntary consensus standards" before relying upon "manufacture standards" or developing "regime standards".^[24] Regulatory authorities can reference voluntary consensus standards to translate internationally accepted criteria into public policy.^{[25] [26]}

Data commutation [edit]

In the context of data commutation, standardization refers to the process of developing standards for specific business organisation processes using specific formal languages. These standards are usually developed in voluntary consensus standards bodies such equally the United nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business organization (UN/CEFACT), the Www Consortium (W3C), the Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA), and the Organization for the Advocacy of Structured Data Standards (OASIS).

There are many specifications that govern the operation and interaction of devices and software on the Cyberspace, but they are rarely referred to as standards, so as to preserve that discussion equally the domain of relatively disinterested bodies such as ISO. The W3C, for example, publishes "Recommendations", and the IETF publishes "Requests for Comments" (RFCs). All the same, these publications are sometimes referred to as standards.

Environmental protection [edit]

Standardized product certifications such equally of organic nutrient, buildings or possibly sustainable seafood also equally standardized production safety evaluation and dis/approval procedures (due east.g. regulation of chemicals, cosmetics and food rubber) tin can protect the environs.^{[27] [28] [29]} This consequence may depend on associated modified consumer choices, strategic product support/obstruction, requirements and bans as well as their accordance with a scientific basis, the robustness and applicability of a scientific basis, whether adoption of the certifications is voluntary, and the socioeconomic context (systems of governance and the economy), with peradventure most certifications beingness and so far more often than not largely ineffective.^{[30] [ additional citation(due south) needed ]}

Moreover, standardized scientific frameworks can enable evaluation of levels of environmental protection, such as of marine protected areas, and serve as, potentially evolving, guides for improving, planning and monitoring the protection-quality, -scopes and -extents.^[31]

Moreover, technical standards could subtract electronic waste material^{[32] [33] [34]} and reduce resource-needs such as by thereby requiring products to exist interoperable, compatible, durable, energy-efficient, modular,^[35] upgradeable/repairable^[36] and recyclable and conform to versatile, optimal standards and protocols. The domain of such standardization is not limited to electronic devices like smartphones and phone chargers just could also be applied to e.g. the energy infrastructure. Policy-makers could develop policies "fostering standard design and interfaces, and promoting the re-use of modules and components beyond plants to develop more sustainable energy infrastructure".^[37] Computers and the Net are some of the tools that could be used to increase practicability and reduce suboptimal results, detrimental standards and bureaucracy, which is often associated with traditional processes and results of standardization.^[38] Taxes and subsidies, and funding of research and development could be used complementarily.^[39]

Product testing and assay [edit]

In routine product testing and product analysis results can be reported using official or informal standards. It can be washed to increment consumer protection, to ensure safe or healthiness or efficiency or functioning or sustainability of products. It can exist carried out past the manufacturer, an contained laboratory, a authorities agency, a magazine or others on a voluntary or mandated basis.^{[twoscore] [41] [ additional citation(south) needed ]}

Safety [edit]

Public data symbols [edit]

Public data symbols (e.m. take chances symbols), specially when related to safety, are oftentimes standardized, sometimes on the international level.^[42]

Biosafety [edit]

Standardization is also used to ensure prophylactic design and operation of laboratories and similar potentially dangerous workplaces, e.grand. to ensure biosafety levels.^[43] In that location is inquiry into microbiology safe standards used in clinical and research laboratories.^[44]

Defense [edit]

In the context of defence force, standardization has been defined by NATO as The development and implementation of concepts, doctrines, procedures and designs to achieve and maintain the required levels of compatibility, interchangeability or commonality in the operational, procedural, material, technical and administrative fields to accomplish interoperability. ^[45]

Ergonomics, workplace and health [edit]

In some cases, standards are being used in the design and operation of workplaces and products that can bear on consumers' health. Some of such standards seek to ensure occupational safety and wellness and ergonomics. For example, chairs^{[42] [46] [47] [48]} (see e.yard. active sitting and steps of enquiry) could be potentially exist designed and chosen using standards that may or may not exist based on adequate scientific information. Standards could reduce the variety of products and lead to convergence on fewer broad designs – which tin often be efficiently mass-produced via common shared automated procedures and instruments – or formulations deemed to be the well-nigh healthy, nigh efficient or best compromise between healthiness and other factors. Standardization is sometimes or could likewise be used to ensure or increase or enable consumer health protection across the workplace and ergonomics such equally standards in food, food production, hygiene products, tab water, cosmetics, drugs/medicine,^[49] drink and dietary supplements,^{[50] [51]} peculiarly in cases where there is robust scientific data that suggests detrimental impacts on health (e.g. of ingredients) despite being substitutable and not necessarily of consumer interest.^{[ additional citation(s) needed ]}

Clinical cess [edit]

In the context of assessment, standardization may define how a measuring instrument or process is similar to every subjects or patients.^{[52] : 399 [53] : 71} For example, educational psychologist may adopt structured interview to systematically interview the people in concern. By delivering the aforementioned procedures, all subjects is evaluated using aforementioned criteria and minimising any confounding variable that reduce the validity.^{[53] : 72} Some other case includes mental status examination and personality test.

[edit]

In the context of social criticism and social science, standardization ofttimes means the procedure of establishing standards of various kinds and improving efficiency to handle people, their interactions, cases, and then forth. Examples include formalization of judicial process in courtroom, and establishing uniform criteria for diagnosing mental disease. Standardization in this sense is often discussed along with (or synonymously to) such big-scale social changes equally modernization, bureaucratization, homogenization, and centralization of social club.

Customer service [edit]

In the context of client service, standardization refers to the process of developing an international standard that enables organizations to focus on customer service, while at the aforementioned time providing recognition of success^{[ clarification needed ]} through a third political party organization, such equally the British Standards Institution. An international standard has been developed by The International Customer Service Plant.

Supply and materials direction [edit]

In the context of supply chain management and materials direction, standardization covers the process of specification and use of any detail the company must buy in or brand, allowable substitutions, and build or purchase decisions.

Process [edit]

The procedure of standardization can itself be standardized. There are at least 4 levels of standardization: compatibility, interchangeability, commonality and reference. These standardization processes create compatibility, similarity, measurement, and symbol standards.

In that location are typically four different techniques for standardization

• Simplification or variety control
• Codified
• Value applied science
• Statistical process control.

Types of standardization process:

• Emergence as de facto standard: tradition, market domination, etc.
• Written by a Standards organization:
  • in a closed consensus process: Restricted membership and oftentimes having formal procedures for due-process amidst voting members
  • in a full consensus procedure: usually open to all interested and qualified parties and with formal procedures for due-process considerations^[54]
• Written by a government or regulatory body
• Written by a corporation, union, trade association, etc.
• Agile standardization. A group of entities, themselves or through an association, creates and publishes a drafted version shared for public review based on bodily examples of use.

Furnishings [edit]

Standardization has a diversity of benefits and drawbacks for firms and consumers participating in the market place, and on technology and innovation.

Effect on firms [edit]

The primary result of standardization on firms is that the footing of competition is shifted from integrated systems to private components within the system. Prior to standardization a company'southward production must bridge the entire organisation because private components from different competitors are incompatible, but after standardization each visitor can focus on providing an individual component of the system.^[55] When the shift toward contest based on individual components takes place, firms selling tightly integrated systems must apace shift to a modular approach, supplying other companies with subsystems or components.^[56]

Upshot on consumers [edit]

Standardization has a variety of benefits for consumers, but 1 of the greatest benefits is enhanced network effects. Standards increase compatibility and interoperability between products, allowing data to be shared within a larger network and attracting more consumers to use the new applied science, farther enhancing network effects.^[57] Other benefits of standardization to consumers are reduced uncertainty, because consumers tin can exist more certain that they are not choosing the wrong production, and reduced lock-in, because the standard makes it more likely that there will exist competing products in the space.^[58] Consumers may too get the do good of being able to mix and match components of a system to marshal with their specific preferences.^[59] Once these initial benefits of standardization are realized, further benefits that accrue to consumers as a result of using the standard are driven by and large by the quality of the technologies underlying that standard.^[60]

Probably the greatest downside of standardization for consumers is lack of variety. There is no guarantee that the called standard volition meet all consumers' needs or fifty-fifty that the standard is the best bachelor option.^[59] Another downside is that if a standard is agreed upon before products are available in the market, then consumers are deprived of the penetration pricing that often results when rivals are competing to rapidly increase market share in an attempt to increase the likelihood that their product will become the standard.^[59] Information technology is also possible that a consumer will choose a product based upon a standard that fails to become dominant.^[61] In this instance, the consumer volition accept spent resources on a production that is ultimately less useful to him or her equally the result of the standardization process.

Outcome on engineering [edit]

Much like the effect on consumers, the effect of standardization on engineering science and innovation is mixed.^[62] Meanwhile, the various links betwixt research and standardization have been identified,^[63] also equally a platform of noesis transfer^[64] and translated into policy measures (eastward.k. WIPANO).

Increased adoption of a new technology as a result of standardization is of import considering rival and incompatible approaches competing in the marketplace tin slow or even kill the growth of the technology (a state known as market fragmentation).^[65] The shift to a modularized architecture as a result of standardization brings increased flexibility, rapid introduction of new products, and the ability to more than closely see private customer's needs.^[66]

The negative effects of standardization on engineering science accept to exercise with its tendency to restrict new engineering science and innovation. Standards shift competition from features to toll because the features are defined by the standard. The caste to which this is truthful depends on the specificity of the standard.^[67] Standardization in an area as well rules out alternative technologies as options while encouraging others.^[68]

See too [edit]

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• ASTM
• Conformity assessment
• Toll accounting,standard costs
• Cover, extend and extinguish
• Environmental standard
• International Classification for Standards (ICS)
• International standard
• Interoperability
• Network effect
• Open up format
• Open standard
• Open up system
• OpenDocument
• Quality infrastructure
• Standard gauge
• Standards organizations
• Technical standard
• Transport standards organizations
• Un Group of Experts on Geographical Names
• Vendor lock-in
• Globe Standards 24-hour interval
• Coffee Customs Process - The Java Community Procedure(SM) Program
• International Organization for Standardization
• ISO 14000 standards - a family of environmental management standards
• ISO 22000 - a nutrient prophylactic standard

Further reading [edit]

• Dickson, E. W.; Singh, South.; Cheung, D. Southward.; Wyatt, C. C.; Nugent, A. S. (2008). "Application of Lean Manufacturing Techniques in the Emergency Department". Journal of Emergency Medicine. 37 (2): 177–182. doi:ten.1016/j.jemermed.2007.eleven.108. PMID 18722732.
• Langenberg, T. (2005). Standardization and Expectations. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBNthree-540-28112-vi.
• Spud, C. Northward.; Yates, J. (2008). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) : Global Governance Through Voluntary Consensus. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-77429-1.
• Russell, Andrew L. (nine August 2013). "Standardization in History: A Review Essay With an Eye to the Future" (PDF) . Retrieved 23 January 2014. ^{[ unreliable source? ]}
• Wenzlhuemer, Roland (2010). "The History of Standardisation in Europe". European History Online.

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External links [edit]

• "Benefits of standards and standardization". COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project).
• "Which type of standards should my project pursue". COoperation Platform for Research And Standards (COPRAS project).
• International Arrangement for Standardization
  • "Benefits of Standards". ISO.
  • "Good Standardization Practices (GSP)". ISO.
  • "International standards and individual standards". ISO.
  • "Publications". ISO.
  • "Research Library". ISO.
  • "Standards & economic growth". ISO.
• "Standards Myths". European Committee for Standardization (CEN) . Retrieved viii July 2009.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardization

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